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Definitions

Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief or action.

-         A statement by Michael Scriven and Richard Paul from the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking.

Another definition:

“Critical thinking generally embraces all forms of higher-level thinking that are more complex or deeper than mere acquisition of knowledge and factual recall.”

- From John Gardner, et. al.[1]

And another:

“Thinking critically means carefully examining our thinking (and the thinking of others), in order to clarify and improve our understanding.”

-John Chaffee, Director of the New York Center for Critical Thinking and Language Learning[2]

Critical thinking has two basic components:[3]

1. A set of skills to process and generate information and beliefs, and
2. The habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behavior.

It is thus contrasted with:

1. The mere acquisition and retention of information alone, (because it involves a particular way in which information is sought and treated,)
2. the mere possession of a set of skills, (because it involves the continual use of them,) and
3. The mere use of those skills (“as an exercise”) without acceptance of their results.

The importance of asking questions: the Socratic Method

 Critical thinking is integral to education and rationality and, as a pedagogical philosophy, is traceable to the teaching practices—and the educational ideal implicit in them—of the ancient Greek philosopher, Socrates. Socratic teaching involves raising and asking questions, and through this dialogue seeks to clarify and illuminate, while making the process of thinking and learning visible to all of the participants. According to Richard Paul, from the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, Socratic questioning develops the following elements of critical thought:[4]

-         raises basic issues;

-         pursues problematic areas of thought;

-         helps students discover the structure of their own thought;

-         helps students develop sensitivity to clarity, accuracy, and relevance;

-         helps students arrive at a judgment through their own reasoning;

-         helps students note claims, evidence, conclusions, questions-at-issue, assumptions, implications, consequences, concepts, interpretations, and points of view.

Paul has developed a taxonomy of Socratic questions to help teachers develop and pose different types of questions to develop their students’ critical thinking skills. Some of the categories are as follows.[5]

-         Questions of clarification— asking for verification, additional information, or clarification of one point or main idea, with students expounding on an opinion, rephrasing the content, or explaining a particular statement.

-         Questions that probe assumptions—asking for clarification, verification, explanation, or reliability.

-         Questions that probe reasons and evidence—requesting additional examples, evidence, reasons for making statements, adequacy for reasons, process which led to this belief, and/or anything which might change the student’s mind.

-         Questions about viewpoints or perspectives—searching for alternatives to a particular point of view, anticipating how others might respond to questions, or a comparison of similarities and differences between and among viewpoints.

-         Questions that probe implications and consequences—describing and discussing implications of what is said, results, alternatives, or cause-and-effect of an action.

-         Questions about the question—breaking the question into mini-questions and single concepts or determining whether an evaluation is necessary.

 
Using the Socratic Method to develop Critical Thinking in the classroom

 Paul states that a critical thinker is able to think both well and “fairmindedly” about his or her own beliefs and viewpoints as well as those which are diametrically opposed. Critical thinkers thus move beyond simply understanding these viewpoints, by also exploring their adequacy, consistency, and reasonableness. Therefore, becoming a critical thinker involves considering the outcomes of thought, as much as the thought-processes themselves. Developing critical thinking habits and techniques in the classroom requires special attention and careful preparation on the part of the instructor.  When leading a class discussion, instructors must develop different types of questions—like those outlined above—and develop the sensitivity to understand where and how to use them appropriately as the discussion unfolds. It is also important to develop appropriate exercises that not only enhance critical thinking skills, but also demonstrate the applicability of these skills to “real world” scenarios-- including the tasks that they are required to master to in their college courses.

There are many strategies that can be employed to develop critical thinking: central to all of them is asking questions. Below are some exercises that have been developed for use in UC 175 classes; however, you may find that examples from your own discipline may be more familiar, and thus more comfortable for you to use in your classes. Some of these exercises address core areas of the UC 175 curriculum (such as the common reading, values clarification, time management, effective reading, and using technology and the library).

The Benefits of THeTHeClass Discussion

 One of the most beneficial characteristics of the seminar format is the ability to have regular class discussions. The Socratic Method described above requires frequent interaction between students and between students and instructor and can be used to cover any of the “content areas” included in the course. Class discussions allow for communication, leadership, and other “social” skills to be developed. Discussions also help people learn about and from one another, thus building a sense of community in the class.

There are, however, difficulties associated with teaching through discussion. For many instructors, one of the most difficult aspects of encouraging class discussions is the need to eliminate material that is normally covered in a lecture format.  Discussions take time, and often, less material can be “covered” with a discussion-based approach. Selecting material to be eliminated (or to be learned outside of class) can be difficult for both instructors and students. However, if study habits and analytical skills are developed well inside the classroom, more of the “content” learning can be accomplished through tasks that take place outside of the classroom.  Data shows that students appreciate the benefits of slowing down and focusing on processes that improve their critical thinking skills.[6]  

Handling controversy in the classroom

One possible outcome of discussion is controversy or disagreement within the class. Controversy, if properly managed, can be a very effective tool for developing critical thinking skills and it has also been shown to be a motivational device for encouraging both participation and learning in the classroom.[7]

********* link to Controversy materials[8]*****************

Selecting appropriate topics

One of the most rewarding ways to incorporate class discussions is by focusing the analysis on selected timely and relevant issues. Several publishers have created classroom materials that do an excellent job of providing students with adequate information and structure to allow for a reasoned and informative discussion of a specific topic.[9] 

Presenting a forum on an issue

************link to National Issues Forum materials*******************

Using case studies

 Case studies are an interesting and adaptive way to explore many different topics. Case studies have been used in many different learning environments since they were first employed at the Harvard Business School in the 19^th century. They have been used by medical and other post-graduate programs for many years because they offer a realistic vehicle to explore many “real world” or applied scenarios for students to apply their learning. The primary advantage of the case study approach is that it involves students in the learning process as active participants.  By examining cases on their own, students move from being passive recipients of information toward becoming active participants in the learning process.  Case studies are particularly effective for exploring difficult situations with many possible outcomes or options. Such cases require a systematic process that examines issues from a wide variety of perspectives and looks at techniques for generating solutions and exploring the possible consequences of each. If students learn by doing and have appropriate problem-solving skills, they will be well prepared to meet the personal, social and academic challenges that they will face both on school and beyond.

*********** link to case studies material*************************

Specific exercises for UC 175 course topics

-Time management

-Analyzing websites/using library technology

-Using a common reading

-Exploring campus resources

-Understanding campus policies

-Exploring cultural differences

-Exploring lifestyle choices

-Note-taking

-Effective reading strategies

Bibliography and links to other resources

********** link to bibliography************

(include information on Claremont McKenna College annotated references)