Collaborative/Cooperative Learning

Exploring the Scholarship of Teaching . . . a booklet in 6 volume
The following material is from: Volume 3 -Appropriate Methods

Collaborative Learning . . .

Assumes that "learning is a naturally social act." (Gerlach, p. 8). We learn from sharing our ideas with others in an active, constructive manner that encourages participants to collectively work through problems. The connections between the learners (telling and listening) are a vital part of the process.
The role of the instructor is to create the conditions (e.g., setting up student roles) and help the class to synthesize the outcome. The challenge is teaching students how to work in a collaborative environment.

Deliberations, on Collaborative Learning. (no date). Available: http://www.lgu.ac.uk/deliberations/collab.learning/
Gerlach, J. “Is this collaboration?” New Directions in Teaching & Learning, 59(1994): 5-14.
NickNacksTelecollaborate. (6/26/00). Available: http://home.talkcity.com/academydr/nicknacks/.

Cooperative Learning
Assumes that learning happens when participants realize they are interdependent and seek outcomes beneficial to everyone in the class. Cooperative Learning occurs when students "work together to maximize their
own and each other's learning." (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, p. 3) Small groups work on assignments until everyone understands and can do them. It is often associated with Collaborative Learning. A major challenge is managing group activities.

Johnson, D., Johnson, R., and Smith, K. “Cooperative Learning: Increasing college faculty instructional productivity.” ASHE-ERIC higher Education Report No. 4 (1991). Washington, D.C.: The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development.

Panitz, Ted. Cooperative Learning (no date). Available: http://www.capecod.net/~tpanitz/tedspage

Johnson, Roger T. & David W. Johnson. Cooperative Learning Center, Univ. of Minnesota (no date).
Available: http://www.clcrc.com/pages/cl.html

Yazdani, Masoud. Computer Supported Cooperative Learning (no date).
Available: http://www.dcs.exeter.ac.uk/~masoud/yazdani/projects/learning.htm

Office of Research, Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI) of the U.S. Department of
Education. Available: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/OR/ConsumerGuides/cooplear.html

“Cooperative Learning 3.” Univ. of Colorada at Denver (no date).
Available: http://www.cudenver.edu/public/OTE/nn/vol2/2_1.htm

Singham, M. (September 4, 2001) Group work explained for a Physics course- syllabus handouts, etc.
Available: http://erebus.phys.cwru.edu/~mano/group.html

Increasing Knowledge through Collaborative Learning
By Johnston A. K. Njoku, MLIS

Introduction:
This article is about increasing knowledge through a collaborative learning method. The method allows students to take part in the construction of their knowledge by sharing with one another skills, ideas, and information on any subject that they are studying. Collaborative learning encourages positive individual commitment, relative independence, mutual interdependency, and healthy dynamic intra-group exchange. In small group collaborating learning contexts, students do realize that each of them has a responsibility to make a maximum input to their group's knowledge of the subject or object of study. I know from the classes that I teach on cultural diversity that when students engage in a healthy exchange in a collaborative learning context, they work hard as individuals in order to succeed as a group. In the process, each increases their individual knowledge bases.

The biggest challenge of collaborative learning at a college level is that every classroom consists of people from different regional, environmental, linguistic, religious, occupational, social and cultural backgrounds. As such, there is bound to be some misunderstanding and often conflict. For this reason, there is always a need for negotiation and intercultural understanding. Two other challenges of the collaborative learning are these: First, the instructor has to know how to generate and promote the spirit of positive self-image and collective integrity. Second, students must learn how to use group meetings or classrooms as contact zones for healthy exchange. Other challenges exist and the critics are quick to point these out to the proponents of the collaborative learning method.

Irrespective of its challenges, studies also show that when students in collaborative learning contexts own the collective responsibility to learn, they increase their group knowledge as well as their individual knowledge bases. Comparative studies on cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning at college level found cooperation to promote greater intrinsic motivation to learn, enables more frequent use of cognitive processes, higher-level reasoning, cognitive elaboration, and greater long-term maintenance of the skills learned. The studies also show that students learning cooperatively felt more social support (both academically and personally) from peers and professors than did students working competitively.” Another outcome is this: “When students worked cooperatively, positive and supportive relationships tended to develop, even among students from different ethnic, cultural, language, social class, ability, and gender groups.”1
In this article, I use the subject of diversity to show how to increase college level student knowledge of cultural diversity in the United States through collaborative learning from various intellectual perspectives and multicultural dimensions. Before demonstrating how this method plays out in my classrooms, let me first present an outline of the steps in collaborative learning:

Step One: State the subject, issue, or study object. Remember that nobody comes to a classroom blank. Make it clear that we both the teacher and students want to learn from one another.

Step Two: Brainstorm with students. Call for what students already know about the subject. This is will become the basis of their additional knowledge.

Step Three: Develop a conceptual frame of reference. Ask students to stop and think of the underlying ideas of the subject to determine the conceptual focus.

Step four: Relate concepts to Facts. Ask students to state how they can relate the core ideas and issues of the study object to facts in their specific areas of interest and in their various communities.

Step five: Compare the differences and similarities. In small group discussions, ask students to examine and evaluate the essential differences and overlapping similarities of the facts that have established and help them to view rival explanations as alternatives.

Step six: Explore the academic and social relevance. Be sure to give students time to discuss what they have learned from one another and how their contributions have enhanced teacher and learner effectiveness and increased group knowledge from various dimensions and perspectives. You can ask students to submit suggestions of how what they have learned can be useful to them in their workplaces and/or communities

Step seven: Formulate hypotheses or intellectual assumptions
Drawing from what the students have learned and observed, formulate the hypotheses or intellectual assumptions that will guide further case studies of the subject.

Step eight: Evaluation. Design examinations and projects to assess the understanding and skillful application of the skill learned and concepts of subject from different perspectives and dimensions in academically and culturally significant ways.

Application of the Method to a Course on Cultural Diversity in United States:
Throughout the course, I assign readings and video documentaries that relate to concepts, major issues, and classroom discussions. When or if necessary, ask students to use specific examples or sections of the videos to illustrate their understanding of why you have covered or are covering in the period.

I started using this method (2) when I found that, because my course on cultural diversity fulfills several General Education requirements, students come to my class from various disciplines with diverse epistemological backgrounds. Some students take the course to fulfill writing requirements, others take it for ethics, but most others take it to satisfy their world culture requirements. Furthermore, each class has students who are at various levels of school knowledge—freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors—who come from diverse cultural backgrounds with different social conditions.

Nevertheless, no matter their majors and knowledge levels or social and cultural backgrounds, I take it that students do not come to my classroom blank. I therefore consider their intellectual, social and cultural backgrounds, as well as their purposes for taking the class to be the bases of their additional knowledge. I assume that students come to my class in search of and will get additional knowledge whether they know it or not. I also keep at the back of my mind that my students will find the additional knowledge and experience they gain from taking my course to be useful to them, both in the classroom and in their various communities. Specifically, what follows is how I apply the collaborative learning method outlined above in the college level cultural diversity course.

The Application of Step 1: State the subject, study object, or issue.
This is how I begin by teaching of cultural diversity. You have heard of the word diversity especially with the qualifying adjective cultural. Therefore, I take it that we are all familiar with the term cultural diversity. Cultural diversity in the United States is our subject for this course. We shall be exploring this subject from many dimensions and perspectives in culturally significant ways. I would like you to write a paragraph of what you understand by cultural diversity. Keep your notes for we will come back to them in our class or in our small group discussions
The Application of Step 2: Brainstorming
I get the students in small groups and ask them to brainstorm based upon what they already know about the subject. Here is when they use the paragraphs, which they had written as a point of departure. During this brainstorming session, the students will give all kinds of responses drawing from various backgrounds and stands on diversity issues. Usually the key words that come out of this exercise are works like communities, people, conflict, racism, etc.
The Application of Step 3: Developing of a Conceptual Frame of Reference:
I ask students to stop and think of the underlying ideas of the subject to determine the conceptual focus of the subject matter. The intention is to make students think conceptually or intellectually and to develop a conceptual frame of reference for the study of cultural diversity. I try to help students to derive the defining ideas of the subject from their different perspectives. I ask each of the students to jot down and be prepared to submit to the class three ideas that come to their minds as they thought about the subject. Working with students, we categorize their responses. Usually their responses will fall into two broad categories: First, issues (racism, segregation, prejudice, etc. and second, concepts or defining features.
At this point, I try to help students to think more about the defining ideas of the subject from their different perspectives. I ask students to reflect critically upon the underlying ideas of the two words “cultural” and “diversity” to determine the conceptual focus. Then the students actually begin to think of the defining ideas of the subject. Sometimes I guide their thinking by suggesting that they look closely at the two words to determine their parts of speech. Expectedly, we will arrive at the conclusion that the focus of the subject matter is really diversity and that the term cultural is an adjective that indicates from what perspective we will be looking at diversity. Here are some defining ideas of diversity:
1. Diverse
2. Difference
3. Divergence
4. Variegated, various and variations
5. Multiple or many
6. Assorted
7. Multi
8. Identities
These words have different connotations and ramifications. A few examples will illustrate this point. Divergence implies the capacity to go into many or different directions. In that sense, malleability is a crucial element in the nature of diversity. The word multi means more than two, therefore having many parts, elements, or identities. Then we should consider identity as a factor of diversity. Various imply variants, variegation, etc.

The Application of Step 4: Relating concepts to facts
As we have seen diversity is not just an abstract idea, it is also a factor of culture. You cannot just overlook the social issues of cultural diversity. I ask each student to go in small groups and discuss how to relate the core ideas and issues of diversity to facts in their specific areas of interest and in their various communities. During this exercise, we establish the fact that people perceive diversity according to their various environmental, linguistic, religious, occupational, social and cultural backgrounds.
We then define cultural diversity as any kind or a combination of the kinds of diversities we identified that make sense from cultural perspectives. We use the following working definitions to explain how these kinds of diversity can make sense in culturally significant ways.
Six Kinds of Diversity:
1. Environmental Diversity. We can relate the idea of difference, variation, and multiplicity to our environment in terms of different climates and weather conditions, many kinds of vegetation and landmarks in various regions of the country.
2. Linguistic Diversity. Many languages are spoken in the United States, in addition to the American English language. Many people especially in the southwest also speak Spanish. There is the Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a form of German language. The French language is spoken in certain parts of Louisiana. Many American Indian groups have their own languages. Even the English language spoken in the United States has many dialectical variations. A good illustration of linguistic diversity is found in the documentary, “The American Tongues.”
3. Religious Diversity. There is hardly any religion in world that is not found in the United States. The most prominent ones are Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, and Islam. Of these, Christianity has the largest numbers of believers. Christianity is also divided into the Protestant and Catholic faiths and each of them, especially the Protestant, has many denominations.
4. Occupational Diversity. There are so many occupations in the United States. Farming, cow ranching, fishing, trading and banking, teaching, etc. Some regions of this country attract particular kinds of workers. There are potato farmers in Idaho, cattle ranchers in Texas, miners in Kentucky and Michigan, etc.
5. Social Diversity. The population of the United States is made up of a variety of gender, racial, age, class, ethnic, linguistic, religious, and other groups.

The Application of Step 5: Comparing differences and overlapping similarities:
In small group discussions, I ask students to examine and evaluate the essential differences and overlapping similarities of the facts that they have established. I encourage them to pay attention to how their facts, ideas and experiences challenge, refine and complement each other. Helping students to view rival explanations as alternatives they may wish to consider is a good strategy. It lets them know that there could possibly come a time when, in different circumstances, it may become necessary to go back to the contrasting viewpoints or alternatives previously considered.

Step six: Explore the academic and social relevance:
Periodically, I give students time to discuss what they have learned from one another and how their contributions have enhanced teacher and learner effectiveness and increased group knowledge from various dimensions and perspectives. I encourage them to submit suggestions of how what they have learned can be useful to them in their workplaces and/or communities. We also, at this point, pay special attention to the ways in which people from diverse gender, racial, age, occupational, and ethnic group respond to the major issues they fact in the greater American experience.

Step seven: Formulate hypotheses or intellectual assumptions
Drawing from what the students have learned and observed, formulate the hypotheses or intellectual assumptions that will guide further case studies of the subject Here are some of the intellectual assumptions underlie collaborative learning of cultural diversity in the United States:
1. Most people in the United States live in multiethnic and multicultural communities rather in clearly defined homogeneous communities.
2. New immigrants and ethnic groups do undergo some forms of social change and cultural transformation in order to integrate and function effectively in multiethnic American work and public places.
3. Although immigrants are made to conform to or gradually assimilate American ways of life, they tend to retain some characteristic behaviors and practices that they brought with them from their original countries.
4. Whenever people from different regional, environmental, linguistic, religious, occupational, social and cultural backgrounds live and work together, there is bound to be some misunderstanding and conflict, and for this reason there is always a need for negotiation and intercultural understanding.
5. Through constant dialogue, negotiation and re-negotiation, different ethnic groups begin to recognize, appreciate, and expect or anticipate essential differences and overlapping similarities among them, and to engage in healthy intercultural understanding and multicultural exchange.
6. Intercultural understanding starts with self-definition. Therefore, to understand the cultures of other ethnic groups and to effectively engage in multicultural exchange, you should know your own community traditions and ethnic heritage(s).
7. The more you know your own ethnic heritage(s) and community traditions as well as the ethnic heritages and community traditions of other ethnic groups, the more diverse your perspective. But the knowledge of your family values, ethnic heritage(s) and community traditions is the basis of additional knowledge.
8. Self-cultural understanding, intercultural understanding, and multicultural exchange are essential dimensions of multicultural education.

Conclusion:
Increasing knowledge through collaborative learning entails that students own the collective responsibility to increase their individual and group knowledge of any subject or object of study from various perspectives and dimensions. Knowledge is increased by engaging the students in the construction of additional knowledge by learning and sharing with one another ideas, information, skills, intellectual assumptions, and issues of any subject that they are studying does this.

Notes:

1 According to David Johnson and Roger Johnson, “The research on achivement found cooperation to promote greater intrinsic motivation to learn, more frequent use of cognitive processes such as reconceptualization, higher-level reasoning, metacogintion, cognitive elaboration, and networking and greater long-term maintenance of the skills learned. . . .Futhermore, “students learning cooperatively felt more social support (both academically and persoanally) from peers and professors than did students working competitively.” Another outcome is “When students worked cooperative, positive and supportive relationships tended to develop, even among students from different ethnic, cultural, language, social class, ability, and gender groups.” See their article on “What We Know About Cooperative Learning at the College Level.” http://www.2.emc.maricopa.edu/CCL/whatweknow.html.

2 I use a combination of the question and answer, brainstorming, and the knowledge construction, collaborative, and cooperative learning method. and the following scholarly works are relevant:
1. In the past education was too often Eurocentrically based. When alternative images were examined, they were most often subjugated to the metaphor of the melting pot: quaint reminders of colorful customs that some days would be little more than intriguing relics of the folksy past (Jo Farb Hernandez 1994, 62)
2. Dinesh D'Souza in Illiberal Education (1991, 214-15) criticizes multicultural education programs as “bullying pedagogy,” “ethnic and female cheerleading,” and finds the efforts of multicultural educators as less than adequate in terms of intellectual rigor (Gay 1994, 38).
3. Pluralistic education is based on the notion that the United States has many ethnic groups (Haut 1994, 26). Within this new conceptualization, we cannot but accept that a society of such diversity would enjoy multiple aesthetics and cultural values (Hernandez 1994, 63).
4. Teaching styles should match the learning styles of different ethnic individual and cultural groups. Education should help students accept their ethnicity as an essential component of their personal development.
5. Multicultural content, experiences, and perspectives improve learning for culturally different students. Students should learn about the contributions that diverse groups have made to humankind and culture in the United States (Gay 1994, 47).
6. Now it is important to see ethnic characteristics as powerful resources for learning. . . . Rather than being denied in the classroom, they can and should be used to promote educational achievement (Burger 1973, 18).
7. We need are leaders and educators of good will, from all political and ideological persuasions, to participate in genuine discussions, dialogues, and debates that will help us formulate visionary and workable solutions. We need solutions that will “enable us to deal creatively with the challenges posed by the increasing diversity in the United States and the world. We must learn to transform the problem related to racial and ethnic diversity into opportunities and strengths” (Banks 1994, 3; and Banks 2000).

Check out these volumes:
Volume 1 -- Clear Goals
Volume 2 -- Adequate Preparation
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