An academic essay seeks to present, in expository prose utilizing a structured organization, information specific to some aspect of the content of a course.  Such essays have, for many years, been the dominant form of Writing to Demonstrate Learning, the purpose of which is to show the audience (almost always exclusively the classroom teacher) what the author knows about the topic.  Content generally carries considerable weight in evaluation, though elements of essay organization--as well as other aspects of writing in general--may come into play.

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An academic paragraph differs, functionally, from an academic essay only in its brevity.  Like an academic essay, an academic paragraph is a form of Writing to Demonstrate Learning which seeks to present, in expository prose, information specific to some aspect of the content of a course.  While a logical organization may be anticipated, the emphasis is on the concise presentation of content information.  Such paragraphs are typically sought in response to "essay questions" on examinations in content areas, and the information presented generally carries considerable weight in evaluation.  (See also Essay Test.)

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An admit/exit slip requires students to record quickly some specific item of information in order to be admitted into the classroom (or other locale) or to be excused to leave.  Typically, the items requested are facts from the content of the most recent class (or assignment) or questions regarding that content.  As a form of Writing to Learn, such "quick writes" reinforce content material which has just been taught.  These may also provide an informal, ungraded assessment of the progress of the class.

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Generally, the audience of a piece of writing is whoever reads it.  From an author's perspective, though, the audience is a construction:  the author's idea of who is likely to read the piece and what those people are like.  A sense of audience is necessary for writers to make decisions about what they need to say (or avoid saying), how much (or how little) detail to include, and even why the audience is the audience for a given text.  (See Purpose.)  Much traditional school writing has as its audience only the teacher.  (See Writing to Demonstrate Learning.)  Writing to Learn strategies are based on the notion that the authors themselves can benefit intellectually from being their own audience.  Authentic Writing seeks to expand the notion of audience to include readers who read the texts for reasons other than to evaluate the authors' ability or development as a writer or student.

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Pieces in this category are intended for an audience and purpose beyond the classroom setting, though tied to the content being studied.  The notions of an audience other than the teacher and a purpose other than to receive a grade are what make this sort of writing "authentic."  Authors make choices about audience, purpose, and form for these pieces based on their interests.  Authentic Writing is the only kind of writing appropriate for inclusion in the KIRIS Portfolio.  (See also Literary Writing, Transactive Writing, Personal Expressive Writing, and these specific types of Authentic Writing: Personal Narrative, Personal Essay, Memoir, Short Story, Play/Script, Poetry, Feature Article, Editorial, Brochure/Pamphlet, Speech, Proposal, Review, Letter, Research Article.  Note contrasts with Writing to Learn and Writing to Demonstrate Learning.)

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Book Report

A form of Writing to Demonstrate Learning, book reports are a means of demonstrating understanding of a specific book-length reading, usually undertaken as an individual (not a group) assignment.  Formats for book reports may vary considerably, from academic essays to more creative activities, such as Authentic Writing forms (though even in those guises, the purpose of the assignment, generally, remains to demonstrate learning).

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Also known as factstorming, brainstorming is a prewriting technique for generating ideas.  An individual or group records whatever words come to mind about a topic (and about other words already accumulated) quickly, consciously trying to come up with many possibilities and trying to avoid any sort of "second thoughts" about removing items already listed.  After the brainstorming list is compiled, students select the better ideas to be developed in their writing.

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A format for the succinct, informative presentation of material incorporating a physical layout which enhances its appeal visually and organizes content into easily-digested portions.  Typically, brochures utilize some variation of a standard sheet of paper folded twice to produce six distinct panels.  Pamphlets, which generally contain more informational content, may be one or more sheets folded to form a booklet.

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Clustering is a prewriting technique for collecting and organizing ideas.  Clustering involves brainstorming ideas and putting them in related groups or "clusters."

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The term usually is intended to specify a one-on-one conference with the teacher, although it is general enough to include student-student conferences (but note the contrast with Peer Review).  Its purpose is to provide direct discussion between a writer and a reader for the purpose of improving the text being created, but it may be an integral part of any stage of the writing process.  Conferences can, by design, cover very specific points or be left open for authors to discuss whatever they feel needs attention.

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A written text, usually not the final version.  Many writers use "draft" synonymously with "rough draft," "working draft," or "sloppy copy" and intend it to mean a work in progress--in contrast to a "final draft," "finished draft," "finished piece," or "polished piece."  (See also Drafting.)

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The process of developing a draft of a text.  The term broadly covers the process of moving from the basic ideas (produced by formal or informal prewriting activities) to a developed text.  During drafting, the writers are "getting it down" onto paper.  (See also Process.)

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Editing is the process of "cleaning up" or "polishing," the presentation or surface features of a text, such as spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and physical layout.  During editing--and in contrast to revising--content is not added, removed, or improved in any significant way; its presentation is.  (See also Process.)

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An editorial presents a personal opinion on a timely topic.  Generally, an editorial's purpose is to convince its audience of the accuracy of that personal judgment.  To accomplish this, the writer frequently employs objective facts, but an editorial is not primarily informative; it is argumentative--in contrast to feature articles.

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An essay is a piece of expository prose developed, in both level of detail and organization, to convey directly a message or information to the audience.  See Academic Essay and Personal Essay.  Also see Essay Question and Essay Test.

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Simply put, an essay question is the prompt for the production of an essay.  Generally, the specification "essay question" implies a larger context (e.g., a test which might include other question formats).  Such a designation also suggests a briefer form of essay written in response.  (Many teachers habitually use "essay question" to mean a question which requires a paragraph or so of exposition.)  See also Academic Essay, Academic Paragraph, Personal Essay, and Essay Test.

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An essay test can mean either 1) a test which requires a single developed essay in response or 2) a test comprised of multiple questions to be answered in expository prose, but not generally with the length or full organization of an actual essay--as in an academic paragraph.  The emphasis in either case is usually on presenting content material, the purpose being to demonstrate what the examinee has gleaned from class assignments, activities, or readings.  See also Academic Essay, Personal Essay, and Essay Question.

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See Admit/Exit Slip.

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A form of writing characteristic of mainstream publications such as magazines and newspapers.  The purpose of a feature article is to provide information on a focused topic to a specific audience.  The audience may be very generalized (e.g., the readership of The New York Times) or fairly restricted (e.g., the readership of Bow Hunter), and decisions about content and presentation should reflect this.  In contrast to editorials, feature articles stress objective facts over opinion.

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See Writing Folder.

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Freewriting is a prewriting technique for generating ideas for writing.  The fundamental feature of freewriting is that the writers must write without concern about anything other than getting material down on paper.  Freewriting is about getting ideas down on paper, not producing a polished text.  As such, surface features (e.g., punctuation, spelling) and syntax--and even larger issues like organization and unity--are to be ignored.  A traditional "rule" in freewriting is that the writers should not stop writing--at all--for a specific period of time so they will avoid going back and rethinking portions.  Generally, writers discard the majority of freewritten text; they select only those portions which they find compelling or useful, and those portions become the germ of the text they will produce.

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See Prewriting.

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Journals are records, over time, of their authors' interactions with some aspect(s) of a course.  They generally are more personal than logs, having a heavier emphasis on response or reflection than on specific information or facts from the content.  As a form of Writing to Learn, journals invite students to interact with their learning, to think about what they are studying and what they are writing about.  Like logs, journals can be tools used throughout the course or focused for specific uses, such as within individual units of study.

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The student writing portfolio used in the Kentucky Instructional Results Information System (KIRIS).  Students are to select their best work in a variety of forms for inclusion.  The content requirements of the portfolios vary by grade level, but the emphasis is on Authentic Writing forms.  With the exception of the Letter to the Reviewer, which is required for all portfolios, writing assignments should not be given specifically as portfolio pieces; portfolio pieces should be selected from among work done by students since their last portfolio year.
Grade 4 portfolios are required to contain one piece of Reflective Writing (specifically, a Letter to the Reviewer), one piece of Personal Expressive Writing, one piece of Literary Writing, and one piece of Transactive Writing.  At least one of the latter three pieces must come from a content area other than English/language arts.
Grade 7 portfolios are required to contain a total of five pieces, one of which must be a piece of Reflective Writing (specifically, a Letter to the Reviewer).  The remaining four must include at least one--but no more than two--of each of the following:  Personal Expressive Writing, Literary Writing, and Transactive Writing.  At least one of the latter four pieces must come from a content area other than English/language arts.
Grade 12 portfolios are required to contain a total of five pieces, one of which must be a piece of Reflective Writing (specifically, a Letter to the Reviewer).  The remaining four must include at least one--but no more than two--of each of the following:  Personal Expressive Writing, Literary Writing, and Transactive Writing.  At least two of the latter four pieces must come from a content area(s) other than English/language arts.

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A type of Writing to Demonstrate Learning, lab reports are the most frequent kind of document written in science classes, but they may be utilized for other content areas.  A lab report documents findings and communicates their significance, usually as a result of hands-on activities and close observation using an organized plan.

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Learning logs are a type of log which places special emphasis on recording data, producing a sequential record of material learned or experienced.  (Note contrasts with Response Logs and Observation Logs.)

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A letter is a piece of writing with a very focused audience--frequently a single person--and purpose.  It employs layout conventions, such as a heading, a salutation, and a closing, specific to correspondence.  Because letters are frequently generalized as social instruments, writers anticipating inclusion of a letter in the KIRIS Portfolio should pay particular attention to content development.  (As each portfolio piece carries equal weight, a one-paragraph letter would score as poorly as a one-paragraph feature article.)  The content of a letter, depending on purpose, can overlap that which would be appropriate for other forms.  Letters may, for example, be intended to express opinions, as in editorials; make suggestions, as in proposals; or relate significant events, as in personal narratives.  (See also Letter to the Reviewer.)

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The Letter to the Reviewer is a specific item required in the KIRIS Portfolio.  It is written in the form of a letter addressing, as its audience, whoever reads the portfolio.  A piece of relective writing, its purpose is to introduce the portfolio as a representation of the author's work and abilities, and it is the only piece of writing which should be specifically assigned as a piece for the portfolio.  Historically, the Letter to the Reviewer has been the portfolio piece which has fared most poorly in assessments, primarily due to lack of content development.  Because of this--and because the Letter to the Reviewer offers a unique opportunity to steer the portfolio reader in particular directions--it may warrant special attention in classes.  Students should be encouraged to consider such options as discussing how or why they made decisions concerning audience, purpose, form, tone, images, symbols, sound devices, poetic conventions, details, development, organization, etc. for individual pieces; discussing how they went about selecting the pieces for the portfolio from among the others available to them; introducing the pieces which were included; describing their writing experiences, either in general or in terms of their work on the selected pieces; reflecting on their development as a writer, such as their challenges and how they have addressed them; describing how and where they find inspiration for their writing; and explaining the methods employed to produce or refine their writing, perhaps specific practices or strategies in their writing process, in general or for specific works.

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This category includes those types of writing generalized as "literature":  poetry, short stories, and plays.  While these might serve in small ways to inform or even to argue, the primary purpose of these forms is to entertain or to offer some insight of human experience.  The audience for literary writing is generally quite broad, but it may be narrowed by notions of content, language, and other factors.  Literary writing may serve as content area pieces in the KIRIS Portfolio.

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Logs are a useful Writing to Learn tool for all content areas.  Less personal than a journal, they are a means of recording information as it arises and learning as it occurs.  Logs can be used for a variety of specific purposes which allow students to interact with the content material.  Depending on the specific design of the log assignment, students can record their thought processes, catalogue questions they have, identify significant ideas and information, record observation data, and/or respond to the new material.  They may be used throughout the course or for individual units of study.  (See also Learning Logs, Response Logs, and Observation Logs.)

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Also known as semantic mapping and webbing (among others), mapping is a way of collecting and organizing ideas.  In practicing its most basic form, writers put the central idea or topic of their paper in the middle of a page and add related words (e.g., descriptions, features, aspects, ideas, questions, facts) around it, connecting the more closely related words with lines.  The resulting "map" graphically demonstrates the relationships of the ideas and organizes details.  (See also Prewriting and Clustering.)

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A type of Authentic Writing which focuses on the relationship between the writer and a specific person, place, or thing, usually over a period of time and including multiple experiences and events.  (Note contrasts with Personal Narrative and Personal Essay.)

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Observation logs are a type of log which places special emphasis on the sequential recording of data from a series of observations or experiences.  (Note contrasts with Learning Logs and Response Logs.)

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Open-response questions are prompts which are employed for KIRIS testing and may be used for classroom assessment of student knowledge (i.e., Writing to Demonstrate Learning).  The response form is, essentially, an academic paragraph, though the substance of the response should specifically combine content knowledge and an application of processing skills.

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See Brochure/Pamphlet.

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Peer review involves getting feedback on a draft from fellow classmates.  The bulk of peer review work is done as a part of revising, though it may also be employed in other ways.  Peer review is essentially workshopping on a small scale; groups for peer review may be as small as two, perhaps as large as five.  Three-member groups generally work best; even numbers invite spontaneous pairing (and off-task talking), and larger groups may be unwieldy.

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A reflective type of Authentic Writing in which writers address issues of personal significance, frequently based on multiple incidents, development over time, or varying perspectives.  (Note contrasts with Memoir and Personal Narrative.)

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A reflective type of Authentic Writing in which writers convey material of personal significance.  (See Memoir, Personal Essay, and Personal Narrative.)

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A type of Authentic Writing in which a writer relates a single event of personal significance and discusses its impact on him/her.  (Note contrasts with Memoir and Personal Essay.)

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A play is a form of Literary Writing similar to the short story in that it presents a fictional account of an incident or series of related incidents.  The primary differences are the physical format for presenting the text and the fact that plays are intended to be performed for an audience rather than simply read by one.  The format for the text includes conventions like specific and succinct stage directions, a prefacing list of characters (with descriptions), and indenting dialogue relative to the speaker tags as an aid to the reader.

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Poetry is Literay Writing in verse form (as opposed to prose) which puts special emphasis on word choice and expression.  Although some works of poetry may not exhibit a clear metrical rhythm or rhyme scheme, a sense of pattern is a typical characteristic of this form.  Poetry can be divided into two general categories:  narrative and lyric.  Narrative poems are short stories in verse form; lyric poems express an idea or feeling without a sense of narration.

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See Editing.

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A collection of work by a single writer, usually intended to demonstrate the writer's ability.  See KIRIS Portfolio.

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Prewriting is the collective term for activities which precede the first effort at drafting a piece of writing.  While favored activities vary considerably among writers, all prewriting strategies are intended to prepare writers for the writing task by helping them formulate and organize ideas and material.  Prewriting activities include thinking about the topic, closely examining the writing prompt or assignment, word association activities (such as mapping), and other activities which help generate ideas, such as clustering, brainstorming, and freewriting.  (See also Process.)

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The notion of writing as a process emphasizes the idea that a complete and polished piece of writing is rarely produced instantaneously.  Instead, writers generally go through a number of stages which may or may not appear as distinct steps.  While we sometimes refer to "the writing process," individual writers generally evolve their own specific process, frequently as a result of modeling by teachers or other students, trial and error, and/or behavioral conditioning (i.e., continuing to do what they have found successful--or avoiding that which causes them problems).  Common terms for the various elements characteristic of the writing process include Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing, and Publishing.  Though these seem to embody a logical progression towards a finished product, they should not be considered sequential "steps" which are followed in a strict order; each may well overlap with others.

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Written text presented in standard paragraph arrangements, as opposed to verse (i.e., poetry).

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See Editing.

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The specifics of a writing assignment:  the topic or topic area, instructions for completion of the writing task, and any specific features of the completed text required.

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A proposal is a docment written to request some sort of support for accomplishing a specific purpose.  Regardless of the focus of the proposal, the purpose of the text is both to convey information which demonstrates the need for some action and to convince the reader that the proposed course of action is appropriate and desirable.  The audience for a proposal is highly focused:  the person(s) in position to grant permission or offer more active support (e.g., facilities, funding).

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Publishing means presenting written texts to an audience.  Publication does not refer exclusively to traditional print publication; it may be accomplished in print in various ways (e.g., class or school anthologies, local newspapers, publications of wider readership), by posting individual copies (e.g., on class, department, school, or community bulletin boards), by posting electronic copies (e.g., class or school websites, e-zines), or by oral presentations (e.g., class readings, "open microphone" events).  Publishing offers opportunities for motivation, and it provides a real purpose for the labor beyond receiving a grade and an audience beyond the teacher.  (See also Process.)

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Simply put, purpose is the reason the author is writing a particular text.  In a school context, an implicit notion of purpose may be simply to get a grade, so teachers and writers must actively pursue the notion of a more authentic purpose--and make decisions in teaching and writing which help to refine choices of purpose, audience, and form for texts before, during, and after writing.  (See also Audience.)

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Reflective writing is a metacognitive activity, requiring authors to think about their thinking in the context of writing.  The most frequent manifestation of reflective writing in the KIRIS Portfolio is the Letter to the Reviewer, but regular opportunities to write reflectively (perhaps in journal entries or admit/exit slips) can have a direct effect on writing development. Writing folders can provide a source of data for reflection over time.  (See also Audience and Writing to Learn.)

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A research article is similar to a feature article in its informative nature, but it is focused on a topic of interest to a highly restricted audience for the purpose of presenting original research, an overview of previous research, or scholarly conjecture.

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Generally, research papers are similar to academic essays--but more developed in terms of both length and depth of information.  As a form of Writing to Demonstrate Learning, research papers present an accumulation of information, usually gleaned from multiple sources and/or direct observation.  (See also Research Article.)

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Response logs are a type of log which require students to note both significant concepts from the content material and to respond to that material.  The emphasis, as the name suggests, is on the students' responses, requiring students to think critically about their subject matter.  (Note contrasts with Learning Logs and Observation Logs.)

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A review is an informative piece written in response to an event, performance, work of art (including music and literature), or product.  Its purpose is to present information about the thing being reviewed as well as to pass subjective judgment upon it--which might include a persuasive slant.  The writer's opinion might be presented explicitly, or it might be suggested implicitly by word choice and other features of writing.  The audience for the review is fairly focused:  people who might be interested in attending or purchasing the thing being reviewed.

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Generally, revising is the process of making content changes in a draft.  While many writers actively revise while drafting a text, most drafts can be improved by a separate and specific effort in revision.  Typical aspects of a text examined during revision include unity, flow, clarity, and idea development.  Revising should be distinct from editing.  Revision may be accomplished by individual writers, or it may involve other people (e.g., conferencing, peer review, and workshopping).  (See also Process.)

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See Play/Script.

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A short story is a form of Literary Writing which relates an incident or series of related incidents in prose.  By definition, a short story should be a work of fiction, but it may be inspired by or based on actual events or persons.

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A text intended to be read for an audience rather than read by one.  The purpose of a speech may be informative or argumentative, and the audience may be generalized or specific.  These two factors must be determined by the writer in conjunction with the choices of content and specific circumstances for the delivery of the speech since a speech is intended to be presented at a specific time, place, or event--as opposed to a traditional written text published to be read at its audience's leisure.

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Sometimes referred to as "real world writing" or "writing for the real world," transactive writing seeks to serve an actual function in the context of life outside of school.  (See Authentic Writing.)

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See Mapping.

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An instructional format in which an entire class (or at least a large group) examines draft(s) to offer feedback for improvement.  While this is technically a form of peer review, the larger group shifts the dynamic somewhat and invites a wider range of perspectives.  Students participating in a workshop generally offer a broader array of responses and respond to each others' comments more than in a typical peer review session.  (See also Revising.)

The writing folder is a dynamic collection of a student's writing.  Each piece in the folder should be considered a draft.  Collections of writing allow the writers to pick pieces to work on, and they provide writers with data to support reflective writing.

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See Process.

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The audience for this kind of writing is generally restricted to a single person--the teacher--and the purpose for writing is to demonstrate to the teacher what the author knows.  The writing, regardless of specific form, is usually expository prose.  (See also these types of Writing to Demonstrate Learning:  Academic Essay, Academic Paragraph, Traditional Lab Report, Book Report, Research Paper, Essay Question, Essay Test, Open-Response Question.  Note contrasts with Authentic Writing and Writing to Learn.)

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Writing to Learn strategies use writing as a means for students to discover and explore what they know--and to learn more in the act of writing.  One of the major precepts of this sort of writing is that thinking and writing are inextricably linked.  The audience for such writing is the authors themselves.  (See also these types of Writing to Learn:  Learning Log, Response Log, Journal, Admit/Exit Slip, Observation Log.  Note contrasts with Authentic Writing and Writing to Demonstrate Learning.)

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